The perception of literature has always been diverse in society. While some perceive it as a medium of entertainment and a form of escapism, there are others who view it as a tool. A tool to bring social change and social reform. A tool to plant seeds of empathy, conscience, and humanity. These perceptions influence how people read and study literature differently. Amidst these differences, it is important that we hold on to a pluralistic view of literature so that we are able to extract diverse benefits from it as a source of creativity and criticality. In our current context where literature ranks low as a source of both entertainment and enlightenment, it is best that those who embrace literature engage in constructive discourse with one another.

Surely those who hold on to literature as a catalyst for positive social change will hold on to authors and works that share and belong to that orientation. In such a discourse, we see varied ideas and thoughts on how literature can best assume its role as a positive social catalyst. For example, Kassim Ahmad pondered on certain concepts such as, Seni untuk Masyarakat (Arts for Society) and Seni untuk Seni (Arts for Arts). Regarding Seni Untuk Masyarakat, he wrote, “… the concept ‘Literature for Society’ is true, as it is the logical conclusion from the essence of arts and literature that reflect human life.”^[1]

In our local Malay literature, we do not have a shortage of authors whose works fall under the category of Seni untuk Masyarakat. We have the Asas ‘50, a literary organisation formed in 1950, whose slogan was Sastera untuk Masyarakat (Literature for Society)². Their works engage with the issues facing society, revolving around themes such as identity, emancipation, humanism, and social justice, with the hopes of reforming society, raising awareness, and achieving social progress.

This article is meant to serve as a review of a Malay novel that belongs to this literature culture, Penghulu (Penghulu Yang Hilang Segala-galanya). Published in 1998, it was written by renowned local author, Suratman Markasan, who is a member of Asas ‘50. A prolific poet, essayist, and novelist, he has been awarded the Cultural Medallion, the S.E.A. Write Award, the Anugerah Sasterawan Mastera and the Singapore Literature Prize. His works have spanned decades, engaging with a variety of issues that range from social to religious. It must be mentioned that this article will only discuss briefly the major themes in his novel.

One of the roles literature plays for society is being a form and source of social memory; “the act and will of documenting the cultural experiences which a community has undergone, especially where changing political, social and economic contexts have posed a serious challenge to such memory”^[2]. While we have formal and non-fiction historical documentations, literary mediums provide deeper humane perspectives that go beyond data and statistics. In the case of Penghulu, it documents the Malay community’s experience in Singapore during a specific context, which is the post-independence period during the 60s and 70s.

Being set in this period, the novel documents the various issues and challenges that the Malay community faced during the post-independence period. One of the themes that feature dominantly in the book is the feeling of loss and lamentations by the community after experiencing displacement from their kampungs and villages due to the nation’s rapid urbanisation and modernisation following independence. The main character, Pak Suleh, used to be the headman of his island village, Pulau Sebidang. Being relocated to mainland Singapore because of the government’s plan to redevelop the island, the novel captures that character’s angst and anxiety of being in a new environment that uproots him from the environment that he lived in from a young age, and where his family had lived for generations. It also revolves around the challenges that his family faces such as drug abuse, familial disconnection, structural unemployment, educational opportunities, and leadership vacuum.

Pak Suleh’s experience of loss, angst, and anxiety during that period is one that reflects the myriad of cultural and structural problems that the Malay community was facing as a minority community. For this reason, lamentation is a prominent literary theme in this novel, and one of the constant subjects of lamentation is towards urbanisation. In the novel, urbanisation is seen as a bane for Pak Suleh and his family; his son’s drug abuse, his daughter’s romantic choices, the deterioration of health, and many others. All were related to the urban context they were forced to live in by the government.

“The mainland is not like our island, Mun. Last time on the island, Mun, there weren’t too many outside influences, unlike on the mainland. Here people have gone to English schools, they are no longer like the island Malays, Mun. They’re now city folks, mainland people, Singaporeans, so they’ve forgotten their origins. The cultural traditions and customs of the Malays have been abandoned, for they’ve seen how their friends behave. The Chinese and Indians do it, and they want to do it too. Their parents have abandoned religion; they too have done the same. That’s the reason why, Mun, I really don’t like to live on this mainland. We’re buried, submerged in the customs and behaviours of city folks, Mun.” ^[3]

While the aforementioned are looked through a collective lens of family and society, the novel also elaborates on the character’s personal angst at losing his home. Here, we see a form of character study about an individual who was forcibly removed from a position of power in his village to an ordinary man in an urban setting, stripped of his title and authority. We observe him recalling the heydays of his leadership, where he saw himself as a king beloved and respected by his people. His experience also led him to romanticise village life as well, recalling it as an idyllic life and place, free of troubles and woes.

“Memories of the past slowly invaded his thoughts. He remembered when he was penghulu, the village headman, on the island. He was king of that island. Old and young alike called him “Tok”. He was the one who settled all fights. For all disputes, he was the mediator. All problems were reported to him and he tried to solve them. And the people always remembered his deeds. If he was sick and did not go out to sea, or if he had things to do on the mainland, they would give him his share, such a large amount of fish, crabs and other types of seafood that he would not be able to finish everything for the next two or three days. Oh! How easy it was for people with power, he thought.”^[4] 

While phenomena such as urbanisation and modernisation were identified as external and structural impediments, the novel does not shy away from engaging with the internal issues that lie within the Malay community. One example would be the community’s religious understanding which the author believes to be erroneous. In several instances, the novel incorporates religious themes based on Quranic verses, while also emphasising the importance of reading the Quran and understanding its interpretations.

“Just look at the people who say that Islam is their religion. They’re always going to the mosque, but they practise wastage, for example, during wedding feasts. They invite a lot of people and the bride and groom change dresses seven times during the wedding ceremony, why, isn’t that wastage? They all know that wastage is Satan’s game, but they still do it. And then, with all the things forbidden by God, they lump everything together to become one. A wedding witnessed by a huge crowd of people who are not related to one another, according to Ustaz Lokman, should not take place. The male and female guests are all mixed together. What’s worse is that there are those who have the kuda kepang, or hobby horse, performance to celebrate their wedding feast. Wasn’t that clearly stated by the religious council to be against religion, a bidaah, and forbidden by the religious adviser, but still they ignore it all and continue to do it.” ^[5]

Another major theme in the novel would be its criticality towards authority and leadership, specifically the community’s political and religious leaders. It underlines how certain leaders would contradict themselves, while not aligning with the tenets and principles of Islam. It also highlights the fixation on power and authority roles, to the point that their ambition takes precedence over the welfare of others.

“That’s you, always thinking of yourself first and not about the fate of others.”
“Don’t just accuse me, Lamit!”
“Why not? Last time when Sohrah went missing, you didn’t allow us to report the matter to the police because you said that you’d look for Sohrah. But finally, Sohrah came back home by herself in a rather sorry state. I know why you didn’t want the incident to be reported to the police. You were afraid that it would be leaked to the press, and when it was reported in the newspapers, your chances of becoming an MP would be considerably reduced!” 
“It’s easy for you to talk, but do you know what lies behind it all, Lamit?” 
“It’s all so very clear, Bang. You place more importance on your own career than on the fate of the family. This case is yet more proof.” ^[6]

Upon observation, we find that the themes in Penghulu, although localised in context, reflect the general tenor of post-independence regional (ASEAN) and global literature (Global South). Despite hailing from different countries and regions, we see that the major themes mentioned in Penghulu, such as the after-effects of colonialism, the impact of urbanisation, the structural barriers towards social and economic progress, the tensions between community and state, criticality towards authority and leadership, are featured in numerous other works. It displays the universal perception of literature as a catalyst for social reform and progress. With the increasing efforts of translating literary works from non-English languages, such as Penghulu, we are able to appreciate the common themes that are found in works from this period, despite the differences in contexts. These works should be deemed as sources of inspiration for our criticality and creativity, while also tying ourselves with the larger humanity.

The awareness of these themes and the interconnection with the wider region and globe reinforces the role that literature can be a tool for social memory. It should serve as a reminder about the relevance and importance of literature. In our modern and fast-changing environment, the book reminds society about the origins of our predicaments and the strides we have made towards progress, preserving the community’s history and experiences in words and pages in a way that no other medium is able to capture. For the young generation, it roots them in the community, engaging them with the community’s past that would allow them to better appreciate and understand their current context. ⬛

¹ Ahmad, K. Dialog Dengan Sasterawan. Obscura Enterprise, 2019. p. 81 ²  See: Asas50. Available at: https://www.asas50.org 
² Alwee, A. I. Literature and Social Memory: The Case of Suratman Markasan. In A Portrait of the Arts in Singapore, edited by Poon, A., vol. 21, National University of Singapore Society (NUSS), p. 74
³ Markasan, S. The Penghulu. (translated by Ishak, S.) Epigram Books, 2012, p. 21
⁴ Ibid, pp. 1-2
⁵ Ibid, pp. 113-114
⁶ Ibid, p. 151

Ahmad Ubaidillah Mohd Khair is currently a Research Analyst at the Centre for Research on Islamic and Malay Affairs (RIMA). He holds an Islamic Jurisprudence degree from Yarmouk University, Jordan. His research interests are literature discourse and sociology of religion. He has also written for other platforms such as Muslim.sg, Wasat Online, and BeritaMediacorp.