The convergence of tradition, spirituality and cultural preservation presents a complex challenge for indigenous art forms, particularly those deeply rooted in animism and shamanistic rituals. Mak Yong and Kuda Kepang are two traditional Southeast Asian performing arts that have captivated audiences with their blend of dance, music and rich storytelling. Despite their artistic beauty, both art forms have faced substantial criticisms and scrutiny, and in some regions, shunned, due to their perceived conflicts with Islamic religious practices — particularly in Malaysia and Singapore, where Malay communities in both countries are predominantly Muslims. Diving deeper, let us explore the unique cultural significance of these art forms and the challenges brought about by contemporary society as practitioners of these art forms grapple with cultural preservation and religious practices.
Cultural and Spiritual Roots of Mak Yong and Kuda Kepang
Mak Yong is believed to have originated over centuries ago in the region now known as Kelantan, Malaysia. It is a captivating blend of storytelling, dance, music and improvisation and is often performed to enact ancient myths and legends. Some major stories performed are recounts of the adventures and fates of royal-celestial figures, deeply rooted in the mythology of the ancient Kelantan-Pattani Sultanates, dating back to the Srivijaya Empire (7th-13th century)[1]. Mak Yong was traditionally performed in the royal courts and rural villages for entertainment and healing purposes. Historically, when the art form was performed as healing rituals, Mak Yong alone, or combined with main puteri, serves as a vehicle of healing or exorcism through a patient’s participation in a dramatic performance. In a way, the practice was seen as a “psychotherapy” for depression[2]. Ultimately, due to its deep-rooted history, Mak Yong is more than an artistic performance; it carries significant spiritual elements linked to pre-Islamic animistic beliefs.
Similarly, Kuda Kepang is a traditional Javanese dance form that spread to Malaysia and Singapore, with the migration of Javanese people to these regions. Kuda Kepang is a hobbyhorse trance dance, which has been part of the Singaporean Malay community’s cultural practices since 1948, when Javanese performers first began organising performances in Singapore. Although contemporary Kuda Kepang performance in Singapore share similarities with Javanese traditions like jaranan, kuda lumping, reog, and jathilan, Singaporean Malay practitioners have localised the art form. The dance form typically involves performers raising woven rattan horses — it is believed to symbolise the heroic efforts of the Wali Songo (Nine Saints) who spread Islam in Java[3]. However, the dance also sometimes takes on spiritual and ritualistic elements, with performers entering trance-like states, engaging in feats of supernatural strength or self-mortification, like walking on hot coals or consuming glass. As the gamelan ensemble plays the mystical instrumentals, performers inhale the incense smoke from an incense burner in the middle of a circle. As they inhale the smoke, they enter a trance state, inviting djinn (invisible spirit) into their bodies. These trance states, known as naik angin (literally “rising wind”), are thought to be a manifestation of spiritual possession, adding an element of shamanism to what is otherwise a martial and celebratory performance. Conclusively, performers “possess the ability to perform superhuman feats in this state”[4].
In its glory days, Kuda Kepang was often performed at weddings or functions in Singapore. Remembering my childhood, I was scared yet fascinated by the whole performance — the beautiful chimes of gamelan in the background, coupled with the artistic movements of the performers with their vibrant and eye-catching props. Needless to say, I was glad to be able to witness such beauty that we do not get to see often today.
The ‘Forbidden’ Arts
The spiritual elements that underpin Mak Yong and Kuda Kepang, however, placed both art forms in tension with aspects of Islam. In Malaysia, arts associated with pre-Islamic practices have often been viewed as contrary to Islamic teachings. In 1991, the Kelantan state government, under the rule of Shariah, banned Mak Yong, citing its roots in animism and Hindu-Buddhist tradition, which existed before the arrival of Islam in the region. This prohibition significantly impacted the art form, with few opportunities for performances and a diminishing pool of practitioners. While efforts have been made to revive Mak Yong, including a UNESCO proclamation in 2005, recognising it as a Master of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, the ban in its birthplace remains a contentious issue. Fortunately, the Kelantan state government lifted its ban on Mak Yong in 2019, albeit with the condition that the practice will be regulated within the Shariah[5].
Similarly, Kuda Kepang has faced religious scrutiny in both Malaysia and Singapore, where its trance element and links to pre-Islamic spiritual practices have led to restrictions on its performance. In Johor, Malaysia, Kuda Kepang was banned outright for a time, although some performances are allowed today under strict regulations. In Singapore, the government has also imposed restrictions, particularly on the trance and spiritual aspects, to ensure public safety and maintain religious harmony. Consequently, modern performances of Kuda Kepang in Singapore often exclude the spiritual possession elements that once defined the dance, focusing instead on its artistic and cultural value. These bans and restrictions reflect a broader struggle within Malay-majority Muslim societies between preserving cultural heritage and adhering to religious practices. Given the concerns by the local community regarding elements of Kuda Kepang – in particular its shamanistic aspects which are seen to be against Islamic teachings – some Singaporean Kuda Kepang troupes began to travel to Bintan and other islands in the Indonesian Riau archipelago to perform.
Cultural Preservation of the Traditional Art Form
The prohibition and regulation of Mak Yong and Kuda Kepang highlights a critical dilemma in the modern world: how can we preserve and adapt traditional art forms within an evolving religious and cultural landscape? Following the epistemological approach of Cultural Evolution, it offers valuable insight into understanding the importance of preserving traditional art forms within the broader context of the Malay world’s cultural evolution, as it highlights the dynamic relationship between cultural adaptation and the need to maintain identity heritage in the face of changing societal influences[6].
In both Malaysia and Singapore, efforts have been made to modernise and preserve these traditions, albeit with varying degrees of success. In the case of Mak Yong, there has been a concerted effort to promote the dance-drama as a cultural artifact rather than a living spiritual tradition. Government initiatives and arts organisations have worked to promote the “clean” versions of Mak Yong, emphasising its artistic qualities over its ritualistic significance. Notably, PUSAKA, a non-profit organisation dedicated to preserving and supporting the continuity of traditional performing arts in Malaysia, has been at the forefront of these efforts. It was founded by Eddin Khoo who was determined to support and revitalise the traditional arts after several, including Mak Yong, Wayang Kulit, Menora and Main Puteri, were banned back in 1991. Now, PUSAKA partners with 25 communities of traditional performers throughout Malaysia, and has even organised a Mak Yong performance in Singapore, with the Kumpulan Mak Yong Cahaya Matahari — one of Malaysia’s most esteemed Mak Yong groups, founded by the legendary Che Ning.
After all, there are two broad categories of Mak Yong: those intended for ritual and healing purposes, and entertainment purposes. Eventually, the latter is often practised in modern context. Mak Yong performances must adhere to Shariah-compliant guidelines and requirements, making it compulsory for performance to have no elements of worship or shamanistic rituals, as well as making it compulsory for performers to cover as much skin as possible.
However, this approach raises concerns about the loss of the art form’s deeper meaning and the disconnection from its spiritual roots.
This was a stronger case for Kuda Kepang in Singapore. Kuda Kepang has been adapted for modern audiences, particularly in Singapore, where the emphasis is now placed on the aesthetics and beauty of the dance, rather than its supernatural, mystical elements. While this allows the art form to survive in a highly regulated society, it also reflects the tension between cultural preservation and modernisation. For younger generations, Kuda Kepang may be seen more as an artistic performance, rather than a spiritual experience – leading to questions about what is being preserved when the essence of the tradition is adapted to align with modern context.
The future of Kuda Kepang in Singapore lies at the intersection of tradition, spirituality, and modern identity. Personally, I do think that the traditional art form of Kuda Kepang is beautiful, with the gamelan playing in the background, and wooden horses dancing their way through the performance. While restrictions and prohibitions have been imposed on these art forms to ensure adherence to religious practices, there is also a growing recognition of their cultural importance. Efforts to revitalise and adapt these art forms are encouraging, however, my question remains: can Kuda Kepang retain their essence and traditional art forms, if their spiritual roots are severed? The balance between religious practices and cultural preservation continues to be a delicate topic, and as society evolves, so too must these art forms, continue to adapt to new contexts while retaining their core identity. The prohibitions that Kuda Kepang face reflect broader societal tensions between religious conservatism and cultural preservation. As both art forms adapt to new regulations and changing norms, the challenge will be to preserve their essence while ensuring they remain relevant and accessible to future generations. In a world increasingly concerned with preserving intangible heritage, there are whispers on how we, the Malay/Muslim community, can maintain the integrity of traditional practices while ensuring their survival in a rapidly evolving society.
Whether or not Kuda Kepang in Singapore is maintained, and Mak Yong maintaining their traditional core whilst practising good religious practices, Mak Yong and Kuda Kepang represent a vital thread in the cultural tapestry of Southeast Asia. Ultimately, cultural preservation will depend on how successfully they navigate the complexities of tradition and modernity.
[1] Adapted from PUSAKA organisation’s website
[2] Chen, P. C. (1979). Main puteri: An indigenous Kelantanese form of psychotherapy. Int J Soc Psychiatry, 25(3), 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1177/002076407902500302
[3] Hardwick, P. A. (2014). Horsing around Melayu. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 87(1), 1-19.
[4] Quek, H. (2022). Lashed and whipped to investigate Singapore’s forbidden art of Kuda Kepang. Rice Media. From https://www.ricemedia.co/kuda-kepang-dance-culture-singapore/
[5] Ar, Z. (2019). Kelantan lifts Mak Yong ban after two decades, but insists performances must be shariah-compliant. Malay Mail. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/09/25/kelantan-lifts-mak-yong-ban-after-two-decades-but-insists-performances-must/1794202
[6] Alfan, S. F. (2020). Sustaining Mak Yong – Main Puteri in Raman: A discussion of its existence in cultural evolutionary thread. JuraiSembah, 1(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vo11.2.1.2020
Qamar Jannah Fateen is currently a Research Analyst at the Centre for Research on Islamic and Malay Affairs (RIMA). She holds a master’s degree in international development practice, specialising in sustainable economy. Her current research interests include social inequality, cultural development and diaspora of Austronesians/Malays.
