It is widely known that ulama or religious scholars have played a significant role in modern society. Some might define them as being custodians of authoritative dogma, reproducers of an authoritative legacy, and interpreters of authoritative law. According to the Quran (Surah Fatir 35:28) and its interpretation from the book, Mahasin Al-Ta’wil, the ulama can be regarded as the moral conscience of the society that transcends politics. It can be argued that a person considered an ulama by one group may not be recognised by another. Without a doubt, Muslims generally revere the ulama as a group of learned men well-versed in the religious sciences and theology. They are able to reconstruct their authority when confronted with challenges in a modern nation-state. On the other hand, others argue that the ulama’s power has been undermined under the modern nation-state. This condition resulted from the expansion of religious bureaucracy, which has undermined traditional institutions such as religious schools (madrasahs) and mosques.
The book, Faith, Authority and the Malays: The Ulama in Contemporary Singapore by Dr Norshahril Saat mainly focuses on Islam and the ulama post-1965 Singapore. However, it does not encapsulate the vast history of the role of the ulama in pre-independence Singapore. The contribution of the ulama in transmitting knowledge and scholarship in the past may help to build and construct state heritage. Their contributions, in the form of writings and publications (kitab), the religious schools (madrasahs) they helped to develop and finance, and the religious institutions (mosques and courts) they administered, all constitute a major part of Singapore’s Malay and national heritage. The ulama of the past also helped to establish important networks with ulama in other parts of the Malay world (modern-day Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, South Thailand, and Philippines). There were also networks from the Middle East and South Asia. The important work of Indonesian historian, Azyumardi Azra, shows this connection of the interaction of ulama from the Malay world such as Nur al-Din Al-Raniri, Abdul Rauf al Sinkili and Yusof Al Makassari, and those from the Middle East in the eighteenth century.
Chapter Two discusses the modes of religious authority. In Malaysia, the constitution clearly states that a Malay is a Muslim. Although such a definition does not apply in the Singapore constitution, it can generally be said that almost all Malays are Muslims. The Malays in Singapore today make up about 14 percent of the total population. After incorporating this number with other Muslims from other ethnic groups, the percentage of Muslims in Singapore is about 15 percent of the total population. The Malays are generally Sunni, and followers of the Shafii school of jurisprudence. In terms of religious outlook and experience, the Sufistic orientation plays a big role in the religious life of the Malays. This has to do with the nature of the Islamisation process in the Malay world. Some rituals are identical and similar, including the maulid (Prophet’s birthday celebration), selamatan (communal feast as a symbol of thanksgiving and blessings), and ratibs (mass recitation of voluntary invocation).
This chapter also gives a brief overview of the development of Islamic religious authority from the early stages of Malay feudal society to the present. This is followed by underscoring the various ways religious authority is exercised. Unlike other parts of the world, the ulama in Singapore has neither participated directly in party politics nor sought election as members of parliament. In Indonesia and Malaysia, many ulama have participated in politics such as National Awakening Party (PKB) or Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), and earned influential spots in government. The manifestation of authority in Singapore is established more through publications, radio sermons, and preaching in mosques.
The mode of religious training that the ulama generally receive changes over time. The earlier generation of ulama may be trained in madrasah. In recent days, the ulama receive their training in Middle Eastern universities such as Al-Azhar in Egypt or Yarmouk University in Jordan. Moreover, the neighbouring campus in Malaysia, the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), is becoming more popular among the Malays. Apart from that, the trend of ulama receiving training in Western countries is growing. Some receive it from Birmingham in the UK. There are also those who seek religious knowledge in traditional boarding schools or pesantren. The main source of authority such as the educational institution of the ulama might be crucial. From that point, the genealogy of their knowledge and their alumni networks can be traced.
Chapter Three highlights the role of ulama within the religious bureaucracy. It also discusses the contribution of the ulama in formal state institutions. The term ulama is used to describe the institution of muftis (a Muslim legal expert who is empowered to give rulings on religious matters). It briefly traces the historical significance and creation of formal institutions such as the Islamic Religious Council of Singapore (MUIS) and Syariah Court, including a brief discussion of the Administration of the Muslim Law Act (AMLA). The ulama can be very influential in these formal institutions, including heading fatwa committees. The former muftis Syed Isa Semait and Dr Mohamed Fatris Bakaram are some examples. The significant role of religious bureaucracy in shaping the religious life of Muslims in Singapore need to be addressed. Other institutions such as the Syariah Court also need to highlight the contribution of ulama who served as judges of the court.
Historically speaking, MUIS is a religious institution that owes its formation to the colonial government. In 1880, the passing of the Mohamedan Ordinance by the British government led to the recognition of some aspects of Muslim personal laws. Singapore has always been a major port for Haj pilgrims throughout the colonial period for pilgrims in the Malay world. In 1906, the colonial government established a board to supervise and control trusts and endowments called the Mohamedan and Hindu Endowments Board. In 1960s, a major development after Singapore became an independent and sovereign state took place that led to the formation of a board meant to manage the affairs of the Muslim community, known as MUIS today. The duties of MUIS include the administration of Islamic schools (madrasahs), the collection of religious tithes (zakat), the certification of permissible (halal) products, and the development of Muslim endowment trusts and properties (wakf ). They also look into matters concerning the Syariah Court and the Registry of Muslim Marriages (ROMM). MUIS also looks into the issuance of fatwas (Islamic ruling) and the provision of financial relief to the needy. The author argues that the official ulama are seen as co-opted into formal state bodies, and hence perceived as rubber stamps and lackeys of the state.
In Chapter Four, the ulama from non-governmental institutions and informal networks are the central discussion; mainly the Singapore Islamic Scholars and Religious Teachers Association (PERGAS). Some members of PERGAS are either former members of MUIS or are currently holding appointments in MUIS. Also, some may be given roles in quasi-official set-ups such as the Religious Rehabilitation Group (RRG), which is tasked to provide counselling for former terrorists from Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). The prominent ulama of PERGAS include Ahmad Sonhaji Muhammad and Syed Abdillah Al-Jufri. Besides the ulama from PERGAS, the roles of other independent ulama unaffiliated with any formal institution are also important to discuss such as the ulama in tariqah (Sufism school or order) circles. The tariqah leaders discussed in this book are Ustaz Ibrahim Kassim and the late Kyai Kassim Adnan. In addition, this chapter discusses the role of Habib Syed Hassan Alatas, the Imam of the Ba’alwie Mosque, the respected Islamic preacher among Muslim community and his contribution in preserving Hadrami tradition in Singapore.
Chapter Five highlights the “other ulama”, mainly the role of female ulama. The author insists that a study on them has never been conducted before. It is important to highlight how women had led the community in various ways. Some had led pilgrims in performing the haj. The contribution of other groups that are not defined as ulama but share the task of social reform and the betterment of society are also highlighted. In this regard, Muslim intellectuals, social critics, female religious elites and literary figures can be identified as the “other ulama”. These personalities may not be regarded as ulama by the mainstream religious community, but equal attention should be paid to their scholarly contributions, writings, and activism vis-à-vis those of the religious leaders seen as ulama.
Muslim women have taken up key roles in mosque management and it was rather surprising having females as mosque chairpersons. It is clear that there is still a desire to preserve age-old practices and the inability to apply traditions in the modern context caused much uneasiness about women holding important position in the religious domain. However, the number of women preachers today is generally on the rise. This is because of the high enrollment of female students in the madrasahs. More and more women are giving public talks and lectures. Nevertheless, is the religious community today willing to accept the notion of women ulama? In fact, no woman is featured in Obor Ummah, a book documenting the lives and contribution of Islamic scholars in Singapore, while only two are featured in Obor Ummah 2; the late Ustazah Khamsiah Ahmad and Ustazah Sharifah Badriyah Syed Ali Alsagoff.
It is hoped that more women ulama would hold important positions, just as they have successfully led other community institutions such as Yayasan MENDAKI and the Malay Heritage Foundation. In 2010, Madam Zuraidah Abdullah was appointed to the MUIS board. More women should be encouraged to play leading roles in the religious sphere as they have in other areas of public life. Ustazah Khamsiah Ahmad was the first principal for Madrasah Alsagoff Al-Arabiah (1960-1981) and she published a book entitled, Wanita Islam (Muslim Women). The appreciation of women ulama is an issue that the community needs to rethink.
Apart from including women, the conception of ulama and religious authority should not exclude the contribution of intellectuals. The inclusion of the intellectuals reinforces the argument that the term ulama should not only refer to those who attended religious school or are trained in particular religious traditions. It was central to the Prophet’s mission to uphold social justice and to discuss the problems of society. At the same time, the ulama is expected to be the moral conscience of the society. One good example is the contributions of Professor Ahmad Ibrahim and Professor Syed Hussein Alatas. The latter once stated that one should not neglect Ibnu Khaldun’s Al-Muqaddimah, just as Muslims do not neglect Imam Ghazali’s Ihya ‘Ulumuddin. The complexity of the challenges facing modern societies shows that the religious scholars cannot afford to be an exclusive group but should work hand-in-hand with other segments of the society.
Chapter Six discusses the ulama’s response to contemporary challenges including aspects of madrasah education, interethnic and inter-religious conflicts, challenges to their traditional authority and modernity. This book generally argues that the authority of the official ulama is in decline as a result of modernisation and uncovers the perception that the official ulama is co-opted by the state. Nevertheless, one has to locate the authority of the ulama and other religious organisations within the context of corporatism, where the power of the institutions are hierarchically determined by the state to meet certain functions. Thus, it is difficult to situate and segregate the official ulama from the non-official ulama because the latter invariably have served in official positions or vice versa, or may be involved in the state programme in one way or another.
The author opines that religion will continue to play a huge role in the development of the Malays in their quest for modernisation. Thus, the ulama will continue to play a significant role in guiding the religious community. Nevertheless, the challenge is the kind of religious leadership that the community expects from the religious elites. It is hoped that the ulama are not only those who are regarded as experts in rituals or memorisation but are also those who are equipped with the sense of stewardship, and with the capacity to grapple with contemporary issues and problems facing modern societies and, at the same time, are faithful to the values and universal principles enshrined in his or her religion. ⬛
Ahalla Tsauro is a Master of Arts Candidate in the Malay Studies Department at the National University of Singapore (NUS). His current research focus on politics, religion, and liberation theology. His latest writings can be found in book chapters such as ‘Heritage, Culture and Society: Critical Voices of Young Malays’ (2021), and other online articles.
